Other Types of Batteries

Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Batteries

    Structure
    • Anode: Cadmium (Cd)
    • Cathode:Anode: Cadmium (Cd)
    • Electolyte: Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
    Key Features
    • High discharge rate
    • Extreme temperature tolerance
    • Pronounced "memory effect"
    • Moderate energy density (~45–80 Wh/kg)
    Applications
    • Aviation
    • Industrial backup power
    • Power tools
    • Emergency systems
    Recycling Technology
    • Hydrometallurgical: Leaching and precipitation to recover Cd and Ni
    • Pyrometallurgical:Smelting for alloy recovery
    • Environmental Concern: Cadmium is toxic; strict recycling regulation is enforced globally

Lead-Carbon Batteries

    Structure
    • Positive Plate: Lead dioxide (PbOâ‚‚)
    • Negative Plate Lead mixed with activated carbon or graphite
    • Electrolyte: Sulfuric acid (Hâ‚‚SOâ‚„)
    Characteristics
    • Low suflation
    • High charge acceptance
    • Excellent cycle life (>3000 cycles)
    • Efficient partial state of charge (PSoC) performance
    Applications
    • Microgrids
    • Solar/wind energy storage
    • Telecom and industrial backup
    Recycling Potential
    • Fully compatible with existing lead-acid recycling infrastructure
    • Lead and polypropylene plastics recovered with >95% efficiency

Sodium-Based Batteries

    Sodium-Sulfur (NaS) Batteries

    Structure
    • Anode: Molten sodium
    • CathodeMolten sulfur
    • Electolyte: Beta-alumina solid electrolyte
    • Operating Temp:300-350°C
    Applications
    • Grid-scale energy storage
    • Load balancing
    • Renewable integration
    Recycling
    • Early-stage development; recoverable materials include Na, S, and ceramic components

    Sodium-Nickel Chloride (Zebra Batteries)

    Characheristics
    • High-temperature operation (270–350°C)
    • Long cycle life (up to 3000 cycles)
    Applications
    • Off-grid systems
    • Electric buses and heavy vehicles
    Recycling
    • Up to 80% material recovery
    • Simplified disposal due to non-toxic sodium and nickel content

Alkaline (Manganese-Zinc) Batteries

    Structure
    • Anode: Zinc (Zn)
    • Cathode: Manganese dioxide (MnOâ‚‚)
    • Electrolyte:Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
    Characteristics
    • Nominal voltage: 1.5 V
    • Energy density: ~100–150 Wh/kg
    • Long shelf life (5–7 years)
    Applications
    • Household electronics (remotes, clocks, toys)
    • Flashlights
    • Medical instruments
    Recycling>
    • Pyro/hydrometallurgy to recover: Zinc (90–95%), Manganese (75–85%), Steel casings

Zinc-Air Batteries

    Structure
    • Anode: Zinc
    • Cathode: Porous carbon (air electrode)
    • Electrolyte: KOH
    Electrochemistry
    • Relies on oxygen from ambient air
    • Reaction: 2Zn + O2 ​→ 2ZnO
    Characteristics
    • High energy density (300–400 Wh/kg)
    • Limited shelf life after opening
    Applications
    • Hearing aids
    • Medical implants
    • Military beacons
    Recycling
    • Zinc recovery (>90%)
    • Economically challenging due to small size and low material value

Silver-Zinc Batteries

    Structure
    • Anode: Zinc
    • Cathode: Silver oxide (AgO or Agâ‚‚O)
    • Electrolyte: KOH
    Electrochemistry
    • Relies on oxygen from ambient air
    • Reaction: 2Zn + O2 ​→ 2ZnO
    Characteristics
    • Voltage: ~1.6 V
    • Very high energy density (130–200 Wh/kg)
    • Shorter cycle life
    Applications
    • Aerospace
    • Submarines
    • Military and space missions
    Recycling
    • Silver recovery (95–98%)
    • Zinc: Recovered at 85–90%
    • Processes: Mechanical dismantling, leaching, electrorefining

Classification Overview

Structural Design

Type Feature Applications
Flooded Liquid electrolyte Automotive, UPS
Sealed (VRLA) Maintenance-free Telecom, data centers
Gel Cell Gelled electrolyte Marine, deep cycle systems
AGM Absorbed electrolyte Start-stop vehicles, UPS

Application

Type Use Case
Starter Batteries High current bursts
Traction Batteries Continuous power
Stationary Backup power
Deep Cycle Repeated discharge/charge

Energy Density

Category Batteries Energy Density (Wh/kg)
High Li-ion, NMC, NCA 150–250+
Medium NiMH, NiCd 50–120
Low Lead-acid, Gel, AGM 30–50

Rechargeability

    • Rechargeable: Li-ion, NiMH, NiCd, Lead-acid, NaS
    • Non-Rechargeable:Alkaline, Zinc-Air, Primary Lithium

Specialized Use

Sector Battery
Aerospace Silver-Zinc, Li-ion, NiCd
Medical Zinc-Air, Li-Primary
Renewable Energy Lead-carbon, LFP, NaS